August 1
August 1
Events
- 30 BC – Octavian (later known as Augustus) enters Alexandria, Egypt, bringing it under the control of the Roman Republic.
- 527 – Justinian I becomes the sole ruler of the Byzantine Empire.
- 902 – Taormina, the last Byzantine stronghold in Sicily, is captured by the Aghlabid army, concluding the Muslim conquest of Sicily.[1]
- 1203 – Isaac II Angelos, restored Byzantine Emperor, declares his son Alexios IV Angelos co-emperor after pressure from the forces of the Fourth Crusade.
- 1571 – The Ottoman conquest of Cyprus is concluded, by the surrender of Famagusta.
- 1664 – Ottoman forces are defeated in the battle of Saint Gotthard by an Austrian army led by Raimondo Montecuccoli, resulting in the Peace of Vasvár.
- 1798 – French Revolutionary Wars: Battle of the Nile (Battle of Aboukir Bay): Battle begins when a British fleet engages the French Revolutionary Navy fleet in an unusual night action.[2]
- 1801 – First Barbary War: The American schooner USS Enterprise captures the Tripolitan polacca Tripoli in a single-ship action off the coast of modern-day Libya.
- 1834 – Slavery is abolished in the British Empire as the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 comes into force, although it remains legal in the possessions of the East India Company until the passage of the Indian Slavery Act, 1843.
- 1960 – Islamabad is declared the federal capital of the Government of Pakistan.
- 1968 – The coronation is held of Hassanal Bolkiah, the 29th Sultan of Brunei.
- 1971 – The Concert for Bangladesh, organized by former Beatle George Harrison, is held at Madison Square Garden in New York City.
- 1974 – Cyprus dispute: The United Nations Security Council authorizes the UNFICYP to create the "Green Line", dividing Cyprus into two zones.
- 2017 – A suicide attack on a mosque in Herat, Afghanistan kills 20 people.
Births
- 1924 – Abdullah of Saudi Arabia (d. 2015)
- 1929 – Hafizullah Amin, Afghan educator and politician, Afghan Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1979)
- 1932 – Meena Kumari, Indian actress (d. 1972)
- 1940 – Mahmoud Dowlatabadi, Iranian writer and actor
Deaths
- 946 – Ali ibn Isa al-Jarrah, Abbasid vizier (b. 859)
- 2005 – Fahd of Saudi Arabia (b. 1923)
Holidays and Observances
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August 661 CC (Rabi II 41 AH) -- Hasan ibn 'Ali ibn Abi Talib abdicated his position as Caliph and thus surrendered his control of Iraq after a reign of seven months.
Hasan ibn 'Ali ibn Abi Talib (b. 15 Ramadan, 3 AH [December 1, 624 CC], Medina, Hejaz, Arabia - d. 28 Safar, 50 AH [April 1, 670 CC], Medina, Umayyad Caliphate, Arabia), . was the older son of Ali and Muhammad's daughter Fatimah and was the older brother of Husayn. Hasan was also the fifth (and last) of the Rashidun -- or "Rightly Guided" -- Caliphs. Muslims respect him as a grandson of the Prophet Muhammad. Among Shi'a Muslims, Hasan is revered as the second Imam. Hasan was elected to the caliphate after his father's death, but abdicated after six or seven months to Muawiyah I, the founder of the Umayyad dynasty. After Hasan's abdication, the caliphate turned into a kingship.
Hasan was known for donating to the poor, his kindness to the poor and bondsmen, and for his knowledge, tolerance and bravery. For the rest of his life, Hasan lived in Medina, until he died at the age of 45. Hasan's death at the age of 45 believed to have been attributable to his wife, Ja'da bint al-Ash'at, who is commonly accused of having poisoned Hasan.
Hasan was buried in the Jannat al-Baqi cemetery in Medina.
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When Hasan was born in the year 624 CC, Muhammad slaughtered a ram for the poor on the occasion of his birth, and chose the name "Hasan" for him. Fatimah shaved his head and gave the weight of his hair in silver as alms. According to Shi'a belief, theirs was the only house that archangel Gabriel allowed to have a door to the courtyard of al-Masjid an-Nabawi. Both Shi'a and Sunni Muslims consider Hasan to belong to the Ahl al-Bayt ("People of the House [Family]") of Muhammad as one of the Ahl al-Kisa ("People of the Cloak") and participants of the Event of Mubahalah.
There are many narrations showing the respect of Muhammad toward his grandsons, including the statements that his two grandsons would be "sayyeda Sabab (leaders of the youth) of Paradise", and that they were Imams "whether they stand up or sit down". He also reportedly predicted that Hasan would make peace between two factions of Muslims.
In the year 10 AH (631/632 CC), a Christian envoy from Najran (now in northern Yemen) came to Muhammad to argue which of the two parties erred in its doctrine concerning Isa (Jesus). After likening Jesus' miraculous birth to Adam's creation, -- who was born to neither mother nor a father -- and when the Christians did not accept the Islamic doctrine about Jesus, Muhammad was instructed to call them to Mubahalah where each party should ask God to destroy the false party and their families. "If anyone dispute with you in this matter (concerning Jesus) after the knowledge which has come to you, say: Come let us call our sons and your sons, our women and your women, ourselves and yourselves, then let us swear an oath and place the curse of God on those who lie."
Sunni historians mention Muhammad, Fatimah, Hasan and Husayn as having participated in the Mubahalah, and some agree with Shi'a tradition that 'Ali was among them. Accordingly, in the Shi'a perspective, in the verse of Mubahalah, the phrase "our sons" would refer to Hasan and Husayn, "our women" refers to Fatimah, and "ourselves" refers to 'Ali.
One day, the 'Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid questioned the seventh Twelver Shi'a Imam, Musa al-Kadhim, asking why he had permitted people to call him "Son of the Apostle of Allah", while he and his forefathers were Muhammad's daughter's children, and that "the progeny belongs to the male ('Ali) and not to the female (Fatimah)". In response al-Kadhim recited the verses Qur'an 6:84 and Qur'an 6:85 and then asked "Who is Jesus' father, O Commander of the faithful?"
"Jesus had no father", said Harun. Al-Kadhim argued that God, in these verses, had ascribed Jesus to descendants of the Prophets, through Mary, saying "similarly, we have been ascribed to the descendants of the Prophet through our mother Fatimah."
Harun asked Musa to give him more evidence. Al-Kadhim thus recited the verse of Mubahalah, and argued "None claims that the Prophet made someone enter under the cloak when he challenged the Christians to a contest of prayer to God (the Mubahalah), except 'Ali, Fatimah, Al-Hasan, and Al-Husayn. So in the verse, 'Our sons' refers to Al-Hasan and Al-Husayn."
Hasan was one of the guards defending 'Uthman ibn 'Affan during his assassination. During the reign of 'Ali, he was a participant in the Battles of Siffin, Nahrawan and Jamal.
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There was not a significant difference between the idea of the Imamate, or divine right, exemplified by each Imam designating his successor, and other ideas that "only the Prophet's Bayt were entitled to rule the Community", and Hasan, whom he had appointed as his inheritor, must have been the obvious choice, as he would eventually be chosen by the people to be the next caliph.
Sunnis, on the other hand, reject the Imamate on the basis of their interpretation of verse 33:40 of the Qur'an which says that Muhammad, as the Khatam an-Nabiyyin ("Seal of the Prophets"), "is not the father of any of your men"; and that is why God let Muhammad's sons die in infancy. This is why Muhammad did not nominate a successor, as he wanted to leave the succession to be resolved "by the Muslim Community on the basis of the Qur'anic principle of consultation (Shura)".
One of the theological questions that arises is why did the family members of Muhammad not inherit aspects of Muhammad's character, apart from prophethood, such as Hukm (Rule), Hikmah (Wisdom), and Imamah (Leadership). Since the Sunni concept of the "true caliphate" itself defines it as a "succession of the Prophet in every respect except his prophethood". An additional question that arises is if God really wanted to indicate that he should not be succeeded by any of his family, why did He not let his grandsons and other kin die like his sons?"
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After 'Ali was assassinated, Hasan became the caliph of the Ummah, in a manner which followed the custom established by Abu Bakr. He made a speech at the al-Masjid al-Mu'azzam bil-Kufah ("The Great Mosque in Al-Kufah") in which he praised the merits of his family, quoting verses of the Qur'an on the matter: "I am of the family of the Prophet from whom Allah has removed filth and whom He has purified, whose love He has made obligatory in His Book when He said: "Whosoever performs a good act, We shall increase the good in it." Performing a good act is love for us, the family of the Prophet."
Qays ibn Sa'd was the first to give allegiance to Hasan. Qays then stipulated the condition that the Bay'ah (Pledge of Allegiance) should be based on the Qur'an, the Sunnah (Deeds, Sayings, etc.) of Muhammad, and on the pursuit of a Jihad (Struggle) against those who declared Halal (Lawful) that which was Haram (Unlawful). Hasan, however, tried to avoid the last condition by saying that it was implicitly included in the first two, as if he knew, from the very beginning of the Iraqis' lack of resolution in time of trials. By doing so, Hasan wanted to avoid commitment to an extreme stand which might lead to complete disaster.
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As soon as the news of Hasan's selection as Caliph reached Mu'awiyah, who had been fighting 'Ali for the caliphate, Mu'awiyah condemned the selection, and declared his decision not to recognize him. Letters exchanged between Hasan and Mu'awiyah before their troops faced each other were to no avail. However, these letters provided useful agruments concerning the rights of the caliphate which would lead to the origin of the Shi'a -- the Party of 'Ali and the Household of Muhammad.
In one of his long letters to Mu'awiyah in which Hasan summoned Mu'awiyah to pledge allegiance to him. Hasan made use of the argument of his father, 'Ali, which the latter had advanced against Abu Bakr after the death of Muhammad. 'Ali had said: "If Quraysh could claim the leadership over the Ansar on the grounds that the Prophet belonged to Quraysh, then the members of his family, who were the nearest to him in every respect, were better qualified for the leadership of the community."
Mu'awiyah, while recognizing the excellence of Muhammad's family, further asserted that he would willingly follow Hasan's request were it not for his superior experience in governing. Mu'awiyah said, "You are asking me to settle the matter peacefully and surrender, but the situation concerning you and me today is like the one between you [your family] and Abu Bakr after the death of the Prophet ... I have a longer period of reign [probably referring to his governorship], and I am more experienced, better in policies, and older in age than you ... If you enter into obedience to me now, you will accede to the caliphate after me."
At the time, the majority of the Muslims, who became known as Sunnis afterwards, placed the religious leadership in the totality of the community (Ahl al-Sunnah wal Jamaah), represented by the Ulama -- by the Islamic scholars, as the custodian of religion and the exponent of the Qur'an and the Sunnah of Muhammad, while accepting state authority as binding ... A minority of the Muslims, on the other hand, could not find satisfaction for their religious aspirations except in the charismatic leadership from among the people of the house of the Prophet, the Ahl al-Bayt, as the sole exponents of the Qur'an and the Prophetic Sunnah, although this minority too had to accept the state's authority. This group was called the Shi'a.
There was more correspondence between Hasan and Mu'awiyah with no result, so, as negotiations had stalled, Mu'awiyah summoned all the commanders of his forces in Ash-Sham, the region that stretches from Syria and southern Anatolia, in the north, to Palestine and Transjordan in the south, and began preparations for war. Soon, he marched his army of sixty thousand men through Mesopotamia to Maskin, on the Tigris boundary of Mosul, towards the Sawad. Meanwhile, he attempted to negotiate with Hasan, sending the young heir letters asking him to give up his claim.
Mu'awiyah hoped to either force Hasan to come to terms, or attack the Iraqi forces before they had time to strengthen their location. However, Mu'awiyah believed that, even if Hasan was defeated and killed, he was still a threat, for another member of the clan of Hashim could simply claim to be his successor. Should Hasan abdicate in favor of Mu'awiyah, however, such claims would have no weight and Mu'awiyah's position would be guaranteed.
Mu'awiyah was correct, for ten years later, after the death of Hasan, when the Iraqis turned to Hasan's younger brother, Husayn, to support an uprising, Husayn instructed them to wait for as long as Mu'awiyah was alive due to Hasan's peace treaty with him.
As the news of Mu'awiyah's army reached Hasan, Hasan ordered his local governors to mobilize. There was no response at first, as some tribal chiefs, paid by Mu'awiyah, were reluctant to move. Hasan's companions scolded them, asking whether they would not answer to the son of the Prophet's daughter. Turning to Hasan, they assured him of their obedience, and immediately left for the war camp. Hasan admired them and later joined them at An-Nukhayla, where people were coming together in large groups.
Hasan appointed 'Ubayd Allah ibn al-Abbas as the commander of his vanguard of twelve thousand men to move to Maskin. There, 'Ubayd Allah ibn alp-Abbas was told to hold Mu'awiyah until Hasan arrived with the main army. 'Ubayd Allah was advised not to fight unless attacked, and that he should consult with Qays ibn Sa'd who was appointed as second in command.
While Hasan's vanguard was waiting for 'Ubayd Allah's arrival at Maskin, Hasan himself was facing a serious problem at Sabat near Al-Mada'in, where he gave a sermon after morning prayer in which he declared that he prayed to God to be the most sincere of His creation; that he bore no resentment nor hatred against any Muslim, nor did he want evil and harm to anyone; and that whatever his followers hated in the community was better than what they loved in schism. Hasan was, he continued, looking after their best interest, better than they themselves; and he instructed them not to disobey whatever orders he gave them.
Some of Hasan's troops, taking the sermon as a sign that Hasan was preparing to give up; rebelled against him and looted his tent, seizing even the prayer rug from underneath him.
Hasan shouted for his horse and rode off surrounded by his partisans who kept back those who were trying to reach Hasan. While they were passing by Sabat, however, al-Jarrah ibn Sinan, a Kharijite, managed to ambush Hasan and wounded him in the thigh with a dagger, while al-Jarrah was shouting, "God is the Greatest! You have become a Kafir (Infidel) like youir father before you." Abd Allah ibn al-Hisl jumped on al-Jarrah, and as others joined in, al-Jarrah was overpowered and killed.
Hasan was taken to Al-Mada'in where he was cared for by his governor, Sa'd ibn Mas'ud al-Thaqafi. The news of this attack, having been spread by Mu'awiyah, further demoralized the already discouraged army of Hasan, and led to a massive desertion by his troops.
When 'Ubayd Allah and the Kufan vanguard arrived at al-Maskin, they found that Mu'awiyah had already arrived. Mu'awiyah sent an envoy to tell them that he had received letters from Hasan asking for an armistice and asked the Kufans not to attack until the negotiations were complete. Mu'awiyah's claim was probably untrue, but he had good reason to think that he could make Hasan concede.
However, the Kufans insulted Mu'awiyah's envoy. In response, Mu'awiyah sent an envoy to 'Ubayd Allah in private, and to swear to 'Ubayd Allah had requested a truce from Mu'awiyah, and offered 'Ubayd Allah 1,000,000 dirhams (silver coins), half to be paid at once, the other half in Kufa, provided that 'Ubayd Allah switched sides. 'Ubayd Allah accepted and deserted at night to Mu'awiyah's camp. Mu'awiyah was extremely pleased and fulfilled his promise to him.
The next morning, the Kufans waited for 'Ubayd Allah to emerge and lead the morning prayer. But 'Ubayd Allah was gone. Instead, Qays ibn Sa'd took charge and, in his sermon, severely denounced 'Ubayd Allah, his father and his brother. The people shouted: "Praise be to God that He has removed him from us; stand up with us against our enemy."
Believing that the desertion of 'Ubayd Allah had broken the spirit of his enemy (had broken the spirit of the Kufans), Mu'awiyah sent Busr with an armed force to force Kufans' surrender. However, Qays ibn Sa'd attacked and drove Busr back.
The next day Busr attacked with a larger force but was repulsed again. Mu'awiyah then sent a letter to Qays offering bribes but Qays replied that he "would never meet him except with a lance between them."
As the news of the revolt against Hasan and of his having been wounded arrived, both sides withdrew from fighting to await further news.
Mu'awiyah, who had already commenced negotiations with Hasan, now sent high level envoys along with a witnessed letter in which Mu'awiyah committed himself to appoint Hasan his successor and to give Hassan whatever he wished. Hasan accepted the offer in principle and sent 'Amr ibn Salima al-Hamdani al-Arhabl and his own brother-in-law Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath al-Kindi back to Mu'awiyah as his negotiators, along with Mu'awiyah's envoys.
Mu'awiyah then wrote a letter saying that he was making peace with Hasan, who would become caliph after him. Mu'awiyah swore that he would not seek to harm Hasan, and that he would give him 1,000,000 dirhams (silver coins) from the treasury (Bayt al-mal) annually, along with the land tax of Fasa and Darabjird, which Hasan was to send his own tax agents to collect. The letter was witnessed by the four envoys.
When Hasan read the letter, he commented: "He is trying to appeal to my greed for a matter which, if I desired it, I would not surrender to him." Then he sent Abd Allah ibn al-Harith, whose mother, Hind, was Mu'awiyah's sister, to Mu'awiyah, instructing him: "Go to your uncle and tell him: If you grant safety to the people I shall pledge allegiance to you." Afterward, Mu'awiyah gave Hasan a blank paper with his seal at the bottom, inviting Hasan to write on it whatever he desired.
Hasan surrendered the reign over the Muslims to Mu'awiyah on the basis that "he act according to the Book of God, the Sunnah of His Prophet and the conduct of the righteous caliphs. Mu'awiyah should not be entitled to appoint his successor but that there should be an electoral council (Shura); the people would be safe, wherever they were, with respect to their person, their property and their offspring; Mu'awiyah would not seek any wrong against Hasan secretly or openly, and would not intimidate any of his companions." The letter was witnessed by Abd Allah ibn al-Harith, and Amr ibn Salima and transmitted by them to Mu'awiyah for him to acknowledge its contents and to confirm his acceptance. Hasan thus surrendered his control of Iraq in Rabi II 41 AH/August 661 CC after a reign of seven months.
After the peace treaty with Hasan, Mu'awiyah set out with his troops to Kufa, where at a public surrender ceremony Hasan rose and reminded the people that he and Husayn were the only grandsons of Muhammad, and that he had surrendered the caliphate to Mu'awiyah in the best interest of the community. "O people, surely it was God who led you by the first of us and Who has spared you bloodshed by the last of us. I have made peace with Mu'awiyah, and I know not whether happily this be not for your trial, and that ye may enjoy yourselves for a time," declared Hasan.
In his own speech Mu'awiyah told them that the reason why he had fought them was not to make them pray, fast, perform the pilgrimage, and give alms, considering that they had been already doing those, but to be their Amir (Commander or Leader), and that God had bestowed that upon him against their will. According to some sources, he also said "The agreement I made with Hasan is null and void. It lies trampled under my feet." Then he shouted: "God's protection is dissolved from anyone who does not come forth and pledge allegiance. Surely, I have sought revenge for the blood of Uthman, may God kill his murderers, and have returned the reign to those to whom it belongs in spite of the rancour of some people. We grant respite of three nights. Whoever has not pledged allegiance by then will have no protection and no pardon." The people rushed from every direction to vow allegiance.
While still camping outside Kufah, Mu'awiyah faced a Kharijite revolt. He sent a cavalry troop against them, but they were beaten back. Mu'awiyah then sent for Hasan, who had already left for Medina, and commanded him to return and fight against the Kharijites. Hasan, who had reached al-Qadisiyyah, wrote back: "I have abandoned the fight against you, even though it was my legal right, for the sake of peace and reconciliation of the Community. Do you think I shall fight together with you?"
In the nine year period between Hasan's abdication in 41 AH (661 CC) and his death in 50 AH (670 CC), Hasan retired to Medina, trying to keep aloof from political involvement for or against Mu'awiyah. In spite of that, however, he was considered the chief of Muhammad's household, by the Banu Hashim themselves and the partisans of 'Ali, who pinned their hopes on his final succession to Mu'awiyah. Occasionally, Shi'a, mostly from Kufa, went to Hasan and Husayn in small groups, and asked them to be their leaders, a request to which they declined to respond. Hasan has been quoted as commenting "If Mu'awiyah was the rightful successor to the Caliphate, he has received it. And if I had that right, I, too, have passed it on to him; so the matter ends there."
Hasan, on the basis of his peace terms with Mu'awiyah, sent his tax collectors to Fasa and Darabjird. Mu'awiyah had, however, instructed Abdullah ibn Aamir, now again governor of Al-Basrah, to incite the Basrans to protest that this money belonged to them by right of their conquest, and they chased Hasan's tax collectors out of the two provinces.
That Hasan would send tax collectors from Medina to Iran, after just having made plain that he would not join Mu'awiyah in fighting the Kharijites, was problematic. In any case, as Mu'awiyah came to know that Hasan would not help his government, relations between them became worse. Hasan rarely, if ever, visited Mu'awiyah in Damascus, Al-Sham, though he is said to have accepted gifts from him.
Hasan's closeness to Muhammad was such that when Muhammad wanted to curse the deceitful, Hasan was with him. Muhammad also said, "who worries him, has worried me." or "Hasan is from me, and I am from him," and "Hasan and Husayn are the two masters of the youth in Paradise."
Hasan spent most of his youth in "making and unmaking marriages", so that "these easy morals gained him the title mitlaq, the divorcer, which involved 'Ali in serious enmities." According to his grandson, Abdullah ibn Hasan, he usually had four free wives, the limit allowed by the law. It is alleged that Hasan may have had as many as 70 wives in his lifetime, along with a harem of 300 concubines. He had 15 sons and 9 daughters from six wives and three named concubines. Many of these children died in their early years. It is said that most of these marriages had a political intent in his father's interest.
Historical sources are in general agreement that Hasan was poisoned by his wife, Ja'da bint al-Ash'at, at the instigation of Mu'awiyah. He died in 670 CC. He was 45 years old.
Hasan was 38 years old when he abdicated the caliphate to Mu'awiyah. Mu'awiyah was 58 years old at the time. This difference in age indicates a serious obstacle for Mu'awiyah, who wanted to have his son Yazid succeed him as caliph. However, the succession of Yazid was unlikely due to the terms of the agreement which Hasan made with Mu'awiyah in 41 AH/661 CC and the fact that, being 20 years younger, Hasan was likely to outlive Mu'awiyah. Accordingly, Mu'awiyah would naturally be suspected of having a hand in a killing that removed an obstacle to the succession of his son Yazid.
The burial of Hasan's body near that of his grandfather, Muhammad, was another problem which could have led to bloodshed. Hasan had instructed his brothers to bury him near his grandfather, but that if they feared evil, then they were to bury him in the Cemetery of Al-Baqi. The Umayyad governor, Sa'id ibn al-'As, did not interfere, but Marwan swore that he would not permit Hasan to be buried near Muhammad with Abu Bakr and Umar, while Uthman was buried in the Cemetery of Al-Baqi. Banu Hashim and Banu Umayyah were on the verge of a fight, with their supporters brandishing their weapons. At this point, Abu Hurairah, who was on the side of Banu Hashim, despite having previously served Mu'awiyah on a mission to ask for the surrender of the killers of Uthman, tried to reason with Marwan, telling him how Muhammad had highly regarded Hasan and Husayn. Nevertheless, Marwan, who was a cousin of Uthman, was unconvinced, and A'ishah, while sitting on a mule surrounded by her supporters, seeing the parties and their weapons, decided not to permit Hasan to be buried near his grandfather, fearing evil would occur.
A'ishah said: "The apartment is mine. I shall not permit anyone to be buried in it." Ibn Abbas, who was also present at the burial, condemned A'ishah by comparing her sitting on the mule at the funeral to her sitting on a camel in a war against Hasan's father at the Battle of Jamal. Her refusal to allow Hasan to be buried next his grandfather, despite allowing her father, Abu Bakr and Umar to be buried there, offended the supporters of 'Ali.
Then Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah reminded Husayn that Hasan made the matter conditional by saying "unless you fear evil". Ibn al-Hanafiyyah further asked "What evil could be greater than what you see?" And so the body was carried to the Cemetery of Al-Baqi. Marwan joined the body carriers, and when questioned about it, said that he gave his respect to a man "whose hilm (forbearance) weighed mountains." Husayn led the funeral prayer.
The shrine containing Hasan's tomb was destroyed once in 1925 during the conquest of Medina as part of a general destruction of memorials in cemeteries for religious reasons. "In the eyes of Wahhabis, historical sites and shrines encourage "shirk" -- the sin of idolatry or polytheism -- and should be destroyed.
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Halevi, Leor; Muhammad's Grave: Death Rites and the Making of Islamic Society; Columbia University Press, 2011.
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