Shawwal

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Shawwal

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01 Shawwal -- Eid al-Fitr is observed.

Eid al-Fitr ("Feast of Breaking the Fast"), also called the "Festival of Breaking the Fast", is a religious holiday celebrated by Muslims worldwide that marks the end of the month-long dawn-to-sunset fasting of Ramadan.  It falls on the first day of Shawwal in the Islamic calendar.  This does not always fall on the same Gregorian day, as the start of any lunar Hijri month varies based on when the new moon is sighted by local religious authorities.  The holiday is known under various other names in different languages and countries around the world.

Eid al-Fitr has a particular salat (prayer) that consists of two rakats (units) generally performed in an open field or large hall.  It may only be performed in congregation (jama'at).  After the salat, Muslims celebrate the Eid al-Fitr in various ways with food ("Eid cuisine") being a central theme, which also gives the holiday the nickname "Sweet Eid" or "Sugar Feast".

Traditionally, Eid al-Fitr begins at sunset on the night of the first sighting of the crescent moon.  If the moon is not observed immediately after the 29th day of the previous lunar month (either because clouds block its view or because the western sky is still too bright when the moon sets), then the holiday is celebrated the following day.  Eid al-Fitr is celebrated for one to three days, depending on the country.  It is forbidden to fast on the Day of Eid, and a specific prayer is nominated for this day.  As an obligatory act of charity, money is paid to the poor and the needy (Zakat-ul-fitr) before performing the Eid prayer.

Eid al-Fitr was originated by the Prophet Muhammad.  According to certain traditions, these festivals were initiated in Medina after the migration of Muhammad from Mecca.  Anas, a well-known companion of the Prophet, reported that, when Muhammad arrived in Medina, he found people celebrating two specific days in which they entertained themselves with recreation and merriment.  At this, Muhammad remarked that Allah had fixed two days of festivity: Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha.

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Blackwell, Amy Hackney; Ramadan; Infobase Publishing, 2009.

Elias, Jamal J.; Islam; Routledge, 1999.

Martin, Richard C., ed.; Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World; Macmillan Reference, 2004.

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01 Shawwal, 256 AH (September 1, 870 CC) -- Muhammad al-Bukhari, the compiler of the hadith collection known as Sahih al-Bukhari, died. 

Muhammad ibn Isma'il al-Bukhari (b. 13 Shawwal, 194 AH [July 21, 810 CC], Bukhara, Abbasid Caliphate - d. 1 Shawwal, 256 AH [September 1, 870 CC], Khartank, Samarkand, Abbasid Caliphate), commonly referred to as Imam al-Bukhari or Imam Bukhari, was a Persian Islamic scholar who was born in Bukhara (early Khorasan and present day Uzbekistan).  He compiled the hadith (words and actions of the Prophet Muhammad) collection known as the Sahih al-Bukhari, regarded by Sunni Muslims as the most authentic (sahih) hadith collections.  He also wrote other books such as Al-Adab al-Mufrad.

The life and teachings of the Prophet Muhammad are an important source of inspiration, guidance and instruction for more than a billion Muslims across the globe today.  The Arabic word hadith refers to a "saying" or "utterance" of the Prophet.  Muhammad is seen as the epitome of virtue, goodness and humanity.  That is why Muslims scrupulously emulate his deeds and actions (sunnah) in every sphere of their lives.  In Islamic history, one man stands over and above all others when it comes to collecting, editing, analyzing and verifying the sayings and utterances of the Prophet.  That one man is Imam al-Bukhari.  

Like many other great scholars of his era, al-Bukhari was a distinguished traveller who spent nearly nearly forty years journeying from Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Syria and Iraq in pursuit of knowledge and wisdom.  During his sojourns, al-Bukhari came into contact with some of the foremost hadith scholars of his time.  These scholars of hadith played a pivotal role in the development and promulgation of ulum al-hadith ("the science of hadith").  Al-Bukhari learned and mastered the science of hadith -- that is, the art of sifting, dissecting and distinguishing the authentic hadith from the fabricated, forged or manufactured ones -- from these great pioneers of Islamic thought and scholarship.  Sustained and systematic analysis of a hadith required a thorough familiarization with, and mastery of, a number of research procedures and techniques.   That is to say, the skills and ability to undertake rigorous scrutiny and cross-examination of each and every hadith from a multi-dimensional perspective was an indispensable action for ascertaining the veracity of the text of the hadith, its chain of narration, the background of the hadith narrator, as well as a sound knowledge and understanding of the Qur'an in order to determine whether the hadith was in compliance with the Divine revelation.

After rigorous and systematic investigation of the hadith, hadith scholars would classify them into different categories such as sound, good, recurrent, solitary, weak or fabricated.  However, given the fact that the quantity of hadith which were in circulation in al-Bukhari's time was mind-boggling vast, sifting the sound from the fabricated became a monumental task even for a gifted scholar like al-Bukhari.  Nonetheless, al-Bukhari's diligence, dedication and incredible retentive power enabled al-Bukhari not only to master the science of hadith, but also to commit around half a million hadith to memory.  This ability established al-Bukhari's reputation as a veritable master of hadith literature, and his fame soon began to spread across the Islamic East.  After four decades of an incessant quest for knowledge, especially that of the Prophetic traditions, al-Bukhari reached the summit of Islamic scholarship, a lofty position which no other scholar of hadith was able to rival after him.

As it transpired, al-Bukhari contributed more to Islamic thought and scholarship than any other scholar of his generation.  His anthology of hadith is today revered as one of the most authentic in the field of hadith  literature.  Of all his works, al-Bukhari's most seminal contribution was Jami al-Sahih, better known as Sahih al-Bukhari.  This collection of hadith was the product of an entire lifetime devoted solely to the study, research and verification of Prophetic hadith.  Being al-Bukhari's magnum opus, Sahih al-Bukhari is today considered to be the most authentic book of Islamic teachings after the Qur'an -- the Divine Revelation itself. 

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Bourgoin, Suzanne Michele and Paula Kay Byers, eds.; "Bukhari" in Encyclopedia of World Biography; Gale, 1998. 

Khan, Muhammad Mojlum; The Muslim 100: The Lives, Thoughts and Achievements of the Most Influential Muslims in History; Kube Publishing Ltd., 2008.

Lang, David Marshall, ed.; "Bukhari" in A Guide to Eastern Literatures; Praeger, 1971.

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07 Shawwal, 3 AH (March 23, 625 CC) -- Early Muslims took part in the Battle of Uhud.  

The Battle of Uhud was fought in the valley north of Mount Uhud, a mountain north of Medina.  The Qurayshi Meccans, led by Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, commanded an army of 3,000 men toward Muhammad's stronghold in Medina.  The battle was the only battle throughout the Muslim-Quraysh War in which the Muslims did not manage to defeat their enemy and it came just nine months after the Battle of Badr.

Abu Sufyan became the de-facto leader of the Quraysh after the death of Amr ibn Hisham at Badr nine months earlier.  Wanting to avenge the Meccan's losses at the Battle of Badr,  Abu Sufyan marched upon Medina from Mecca with a force three times stronger than that of the Meccans at Badr.  The Battle of Uhud was the second military encounter between the Meccans and the Muslims and the first one in which the Muslims were on the defensive side.  The Muslims readied for war soon afterwards and the two armies fought in the valley below the northern face of Mount Uhud.

Although outnumbered, the Muslims gained the early initiative and forced the Meccan lines back, thus leaving much of the Meccan camp unprotected.  When the battle looked to be only one step away from a decisive Muslim victory, a serious mistake was committed by a part of the Muslim army, which altered the outcome of the battle.  A breach of Muhammad's orders by the Muslim archers, who left their assigned posts to despoil the Meccan camp, allowed a surprise attack from the Meccan cavalry, led by Meccan war veteran Khalid ibn al-Walid, which brought chaos to the Muslim ranks.  Many Muslims were killed, and Muhammad himself was severely injured.  The Muslims had to withdraw up the slopes of Mount Uhud.  

The Meccans did not pursue the Muslims further but marched back to Mecca declaring victory.  For the Muslims, the battle was a significant setback.  Although they had been close to routing the Meccans a second time, their breach of Muhammad's orders in favor of collecting Meccan spoils reaped severe consequences.  The two armies would meet again in 627 at the Battle of the Trench, in which the Muslims would, yet again, have to defend Medina from the Meccans and others. 

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Andrae, Tor and Theophil Menzel; Mohammed: The Man and His Faith; Harper Torchbook, 1960.

Firestone, Rueven; Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam; Oxford University Press, 1999.

Muir, William and T. H. Weir; The Life of Mohammad; John Grant, 1912.

Nafziger, George and Mark Walton; Islam at War: A History; Praeger, 2003.

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08 Shawwal, 1344 AH (April 21, 1926 CC) -- The Jannat al-Baqi and Jannat al-Mualla were destroyed by the Saudi government.

The Jannat al-Baqi cemetery, the oldest and one of the two most important Islamic graveyards, is located in Medina, in current-day Saudi Arabia.  It was demolished in 1806 and, following reconstruction in the mid-19th century of the Christian calendar, was destroyed again on 08 Shawwal, 1344 AH (April 21, 1926).

An alliance of the House of Saud, and the followers of the Wahhabi movement known as the Emirate of Diriyah, carried out the first demolition.  The Sultanate of Nejd, also ruled by the House of Saud and followers of Wahhabism, carried out the second demolition.  In both cases, the entities were motivated by the Wahhabi interpretation of Islam, which prohibits the building of monuments on graves.

The Baqi al-Ghargad ("the field of thorny trees"), also known as Jannat al-Baqi ("garden of tree stumps"), was used as a cemetery before the advent of Islam.  The most famous person buried at al-Baqi during the lifetime of Muhammad, was Muhammad's infant son Ibrahim.  Many narrations attest taht Muhammad visited this cemetery regularly to pray for God's forgiveness for those buried there.

The Baqi al-Ghargad gained further attention after the first companion of Muhammad, 'Uthman ibn Maz'un (or As'ad ibn Zurarah) was buried there in 625 CC.  Four Shia Imams: Hasan ibn 'Ali, 'Ali ibn Husayn, Muhammad al-Baqir, and Jafar al-Sadiq were also buried there making it an important location for Shia Muslims.  Historical records show that there were domes, cupolas, and mausoleums in Jannat al-Baqi before the 20th century.  After the demolition, it became bare land without any buildings.

An alliance between Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab and Muhammad ibn Saud led to the formation of the first Saudi state (also known as the Emirate of Diriyah).  The Emirate of Diriyah challenged the authority of the Ottoman Empire and, by the time of the death of Muhammad ibn Saud in 1765, most of the Najd was under the Emirate's control.

The expansion of the Wahhabi movement came at the expense of of the Ottoman Empire's losing the control over Islam's holy places.  Consequently, the Ottoman Empire sent armies and defeated the first Saudi state in the Ottoman-Wahhabi War (1811-1818).  Years later in 1924-1925, the Saud clan regained control over Hijaz and the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd was formed under Abdul Aziz ibn Saud's rule.

Wahhabis tried to carry out the demolition within a legal religious context since they regarded the shrines as "idolatrous" and believed that marking graves is Bid'a (heresy), based on their interpretation of Qur'anic verses regarding graves and shrines.  They drew from the story of the golden calf found in the Qur'an where Israelites manufactured idols and prayed to them causing God to become angry.  Some Muslims view this story as being a blanket prohibition against the worship of images and shrines.  On the other hand, Shia scholars used a number of different verses and traditions to support the practice of building shrines over the graves of Islamic saints.  Indeed, the graves of Shia Imams buried in al-Baqi had been revered for hundreds of years and none of the Sunni scholars (ulamas) regarded the shrines as innovation.  Nevertheless, weeks before the second demolition, a group of fifteen scholars from Medina unanimously issued a fatwa condemning the making of mausoleums around the graves.

The destruction of Jannat al-Baqi also had political roots.  The leader of a Muslim community is responsible for enjoining good and forbidding wrong and he can fulfill this responsibility only be having political power.  The destruction by the Wahhabis was a political act to establish Najdi authority in the Hijaz, consisted of the religious authority of Najd, Wahhabi scholars, and the political authority of the Saudi family.  By demolishing the Jannat al-Baqi in 1806, Saudi authorities sought to broadcast their newly acquired political power.  I

It has been suggested that the veneration of Islamic shrines represented the desire for a united theological approach to God and a political approach to land.  Wahhabism also views the destruction of Jannat al-Baqi as justified on theological and political principles.  Because Jannat al-Baqi was the burial place for a number of Shia Imams, the destruction of the Jannat al-Baqi served to signal a Wahhabi victory over the Shia.

At the beginning of the House of Saud's nineteenth century (1806) control over Mecca and Medina, they demolished many of the religious building including tombs and mosques, whether inside or outside the Jannat al-Baqi, in accordance with their doctrine.  These were razed to the ground, and plundered for their decorations and goods.

After taking control of the holy cities, the Saudis tried to create obstacles to prevent non-Wahhabi Muslims from performing the Hajj -- the annual pilgrimage.  Over the next few years, the Saudis gradually increased the Hajj duty.  They also banned pilgrims from bringing musical instruments and mahmal (richly decorated palanquins) -- both often brought by pilgrims but incompatible with Wahhabi religious standards.  The Saudis also later banned "boys or other beardless persons".  In 1805, a year before the first demolition of Jannat al-Baqi, Iraqi and Iranian (mainly Shia) Muslims were not allowed to perform Hajj.  Additionally, Syrians and Egyptians were refused permission to perform Hajj in 1806 and 1807.  On the other hand, Maghrebi Muslims (Muslims from North West Africa) were not prevented from performing the Hajj. 

The Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II ordered the governor of Egypt, Muhammad 'Ali Pasha, to retake the territories controlled by the Wahhabi rebels, starting the Ottoman-Wahhabi War.  Muhammad 'Ali Pasha's son, Ibrahim Pasha, defeated the rebel clans at the Battle of Diriyah in 1818.  By the order of Sultan Mahmud II, the Ottomans built and renovated buildings, domes, and mosques from 1848 to 1860.  Richard Francis Burton, who visited Medina in 1853 disguised as an Afghan Muslim named "Abdullah", said that there were fifty-five mosques and shrines at Jannat al-Baqi after the reconstruction by the Ottomans.  Another English adventurer visiting Medina in 1877-1878, described the Jannat al-Baqi as being "a small beautiful city resembling Istanbul".  He also mentions its "white walls, golden slender minarets and green fields".  And, Ibrahim Rifat Pasha, an Egyptian official travelling between 1901 and 1908, described sixteen domes marking individual and/or a collection of graves.

The House of Saud regained control of Hijaz in 1925.  The following year, Ibn Saud granted permission to destroy the Jannat al-Baqi.  The demolition began in April 1926.  The Ikhwan -- the "Brothers" --, a Wahhabi religious militia.  The demolition included destroying even the simplest gravestones.  British convert Eldon Rutter compared the demolition to an earthquake: "All over the cemetery nothing was to be seen but little indefinite mounds of earth and stones, pieces of timber, iron bars, blocks of stone, and a broken rubble of cement and bricks, strewn about."

The destroyed domes included those of Muhammad's father and mother, Muhammad's uncles, Muhammad's son, four Shia Imams, and 7,000 others who were said to have ties to the Prophet.

In recent times, efforts have been made by Iranian (Shia) religious scholars and political figures to restore the cemetery and its shrines.  Both Sunni and Shia Muslims continue to protest against the destruction and rallies are held annually in India, Pakistan, Iran, and the United States.  The day is regarded as Yaum-e Gham ("Day of Sorrow") by many Shias.  Even prominent Sunni theologians and intellectuals have condemned the "unfit" situation of the Jannat al-Baqi cemetery.  However, the Saudi authorities have so far ignored all criticism and rejected any requests for restoration of the toms and mausoleums.

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Illustrated Dictionary of the Muslim World; Marshall Cavendish, 2011.

Cordesman, Anthony H.; Saudi Arabia Enters the Twenty-first Century: The political, foreign policy, economic, and energy dimensions; Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003.

Danforth, Loring M.; Crossing the Kingdom: Portraits of Saudi Arabia; University of California Press, 2016. 

Shahi, Afshin; The Politics of Truth Management in Saudi Arabia; Routledge, 2013.

Shomali, Mohammad A.; Shi'i Islam: Origins, Faith and Practices; ICAS Press, 2003.

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13 Shawwal, 194 AH (July 21, 810 CC) -- Muhammad al-Bukhari, the compiler of the hadith collection known as Sahih al-Bukhari, was born. 

Muhammad ibn Isma'il al-Bukhari (b. 13 Shawwal, 194 AH [July 21, 810 CC], Bukhara, Abbasid Caliphate - d. 1 Shawwal, 256 AH [September 1, 870 CC], Khartank, Samarkand, Abbasid Caliphate), commonly referred to as Imam al-Bukhari or Imam Bukhari, was a Persian Islamic scholar who was born in Bukhara (early Khorasan and present day Uzbekistan).  He compiled the hadith (words and actions of the Prophet Muhammad) collection known as the Sahih al-Bukhari, regarded by Sunni Muslims as the most authentic (sahih) hadith collections.  He also wrote other books such as Al-Adab al-Mufrad.

The life and teachings of the Prophet Muhammad are an important source of inspiration, guidance and instruction for more than a billion Muslims across the globe today.  The Arabic word hadith refers to a "saying" or "utterance" of the Prophet.  Muhammad is seen as the epitome of virtue, goodness and humanity.  That is why Muslims scrupulously emulate his deeds and actions (sunnah) in every sphere of their lives.  In Islamic history, one man stands over and above all others when it comes to collecting, editing, analyzing and verifying the sayings and utterances of the Prophet.  That one man is Imam al-Bukhari.  

Like many other great scholars of his era, al-Bukhari was a distinguished traveller who spent nearly nearly forty years journeying from Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Syria and Iraq in pursuit of knowledge and wisdom.  During his sojourns, al-Bukhari came into contact with some of the foremost hadith scholars of his time.  These scholars of hadith played a pivotal role in the development and promulgation of ulum al-hadith ("the science of hadith").  Al-Bukhari learned and mastered the science of hadith -- that is, the art of sifting, dissecting and distinguishing the authentic hadith from the fabricated, forged or manufactured ones -- from these great pioneers of Islamic thought and scholarship.  Sustained and systematic analysis of a hadith required a thorough familiarization with, and mastery of, a number of research procedures and techniques.   That is to say, the skills and ability to undertake rigorous scrutiny and cross-examination of each and every hadith from a multi-dimensional perspective was an indispensable action for ascertaining the veracity of the text of the hadith, its chain of narration, the background of the hadith narrator, as well as a sound knowledge and understanding of the Qur'an in order to determine whether the hadith was in compliance with the Divine revelation.

After rigorous and systematic investigation of the hadith, hadith scholars would classify them into different categories such as sound, good, recurrent, solitary, weak or fabricated.  However, given the fact that the quantity of hadith which were in circulation in al-Bukhari's time was mind-boggling vast, sifting the sound from the fabricated became a monumental task even for a gifted scholar like al-Bukhari.  Nonetheless, al-Bukhari's diligence, dedication and incredible retentive power enabled al-Bukhari not only to master the science of hadith, but also to commit around half a million hadith to memory.  This ability established al-Bukhari's reputation as a veritable master of hadith literature, and his fame soon began to spread across the Islamic East.  After four decades of an incessant quest for knowledge, especially that of the Prophetic traditions, al-Bukhari reached the summit of Islamic scholarship, a lofty position which no other scholar of hadith was able to rival after him.

As it transpired, al-Bukhari contributed more to Islamic thought and scholarship than any other scholar of his generation.  His anthology of hadith is today revered as one of the most authentic in the field of hadith  literature.  Of all his works, al-Bukhari's most seminal contribution was Jami al-Sahih, better known as Sahih al-Bukhari.  This collection of hadith was the product of an entire lifetime devoted solely to the study, research and verification of Prophetic hadith.  Being al-Bukhari's magnum opus, Sahih al-Bukhari is today considered to be the most authentic book of Islamic teachings after the Qur'an -- the Divine Revelation itself. 

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Bourgoin, Suzanne Michele and Paula Kay Byers, eds.; "Bukhari" in Encyclopedia of World Biography; Gale, 1998. 

Khan, Muhammad Mojlum; The Muslim 100: The Lives, Thoughts and Achievements of the Most Influential Muslims in History; Kube Publishing Ltd., 2008.

Lang, David Marshall, ed.; "Bukhari" in A Guide to Eastern Literatures; Praeger, 1971.

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22 Shawwal, 1284 AH (February 17, 1868 CC) -- Haji Dost Muhammad Qandhari, an Afghan Sufi master of the Naqshbandi tradition, died.

Haji Dost Muhammad Qandhari (b. 1801, Kandahar, Durrani Empire - d. February 17, 1868 [22 Shawwal, 1284 AH], Musazai Sharif, Punjab, British India), was born and received his early education in Kandahar in what is today Afghanistan.  While still a young man, he encountered the great Indian Naqshbandi master Ghulam Ali Dehlavi (1743-1824) in the Prophet's Mosque in Medina.  Dost Muhammad reported that Ghulam Ali's spiritual energy (fayz) was so strong that it caused him to become restless and disturbed, to the extent that he was hardly able to move from his place.  Returning to India, he continued to be subject to ecstatic states, some of which lasted for several weeks.  Ghulam Ali died, however, before Dost Muhammad could become a disciple.  So instead he applied to Ghulam Ali's successor, Abu Sa'eed Mujaddidi Rampuri.  At the time, Abu Sa'eed was leaving for the hajj and sent Dost Muhammad to his son (and successor) Shah Ahmed Sa'eed Dehlvi (1802-1860).

In due course, Dost Muhammad became Ahmed Sa'eed's khalifah -- Ahmed Sa'eed's successor -- in the Kandahar region of Afghanistan.  Following the assassination in 1842 of Shah Shuja, the ruler of Afghanistan (and the client of the British).  Dost Muhammad was forced to leave the country.   

Ahmed Sa'eed advised Dost Muhammad to establish himself in a place where both Pashto and Punjabi were spoken.  Following this instruction, Dost Muhammad settled in the village of Musazai Sharif, in British India (which is now in Pakistan).  In Musazai Sharif, Dost Muhammad established a teaching center, and in Musazai Sharif Dost Muhammad would see his final days. 

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"You hear my words.  Hear, too, that there are words other than mine.  These are not meant for hearing with the physical ear.  Because you see only me, you think there is no Sufism apart from me.  You are here to learn, not collect historical information."

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Buehler, Arthur F.; Sufi Heirs of the Prophet: The Indian Naqshbandiyya and the Rise of the Mediating Sufi Shaykh; University of South Carolina Press, 1998.

Shah, Idries; The Way of the Sufi; Octagon Press, 1968.

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23 Shawwal, 1414 AH (April 5, 1994 CC)  -- Ghulam Farid Sabri, a qawwali singer and a prominent member of the Sabri Brothers, a well-known qawwali group in Pakistan in the 1970s, 1980s and the 1990s, died.

Ghulam Farid Sabri (b. 1930 CC, Kalyana, Punjab, British India - d. April 5, 1994 [23 Shawwal, 1414 AH], Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan) was a legendary Qawwal singer, and a member of the Sabri Brothers group, led by Ghulam and his brother Magbool Ahmed Sabri.  They were best known for their work during the 1970s, 1980s and the 1990s.  Ghulam received the Pride of Performance Award by the President of Pakistan in 1978.

Ghulam was born in Kalyana, a village in the district of Rohtak in Punjab, British India in 1930.  His family's musical lineage stretches back several centuries, to the age of the Mughal emperors.  His family claimed direct descent from Mian Tansen, the legendary musician of the court of Akbar the Great, the Mughal emperor.  Mehboob Baksh Ranji Ali Rang, his paternal grandfather, was a master musician of his time.  Baqar Hussein Khan, his maternal grandfather, was a unique sitarist.  His family belongs to the Sabriyya order of Sufism, hence the surname Sabri.

Haji Ghulam Farid Sabri was raised in Gwalior.  In his youth, he wanted to turn away from the world in live in the wilderness. However, his mother's stern rebuke turned him back to his responsibilities ... and to his destiny.

At the age of six, Ghulam Farid commenced his formal instruction in music under his father, Inayat Hussain Sabri.  Ghulam Farid was instructed in North Indian classical music and Qawwali.  He was also instructed in the playing of the harmonium and tabla. 

Following the independence of Pakistan in 1947, his family was uprooted from their native town and was transported to a refugee camp in Karachi, Pakistan.  Conditions in the camp were woeful.  Food was scarce and expensive, and the rewards for hard work were barely enough to sustain life.  Malnutrition was rife and brought with scourges of tuberculosis and dysentery.  Ghulam Farid found a job by carrying bundles of bricks for the government house building or by breaking rocks to build roads.  At night, almost single-handedly, Ghulam built his own house, brick by brick, to shelter his family.  Eventually, he became ill.  Worn out, he was told by a physician that due to the condition of his lungs, he would never again have the strength to sing.

In despair, he went to his father for advice and the advice he was given was uncompromisingly tough.  Every night for the next two years, he would have to sit in the middle of the camp for four or five hours making zikr --  praying and glorifying God.  All those days, he bore the scars of beatings with wood sticks and stones thrown by his tired, sleepless neighbors and from the brawls he was in, when they were determined to stop him.  However, he would not be stopped.  As time went by, his lungs grew stronger and his magnificent voice was formed.   Soon, Ghulam Farid started to mix with a small group of people who appreciated Qawwali. 

Ghulam Farid's first public performance at the annual Urs festival -- the annual death anniversary festival for a Sufi saint -- for Mubarak Shah Sahab in Kalyana in 1946.  Before his family migrated to Pakistan in 1947, he had joined Ustad Kallan Khan's Qawwali party in India.  

In Pakistan, after Ghulam Farid recovered his voice, a wealthy businessman approached him and offered him a partnership in a nightclub.  Ghulam Farid's reply was that he only wanted to sing Qawwali and, therefore, he rejected the offer.  Later in 1956, Ghulam Farid joined his younger brother Maqbool Ahmed Sabri's Qawwali ensemble which was earlier known as Bacha Qawwal Party.  After Ghulam Farid Sabri joined and became the leader of the group, they were initially known as Ghulam Farid Sabri Qawwal & Party as Maqbool Ahmed Sabri withdrew his name out of respect for his older brother.  Later, after insistence from his well wishers Maqbool Ahmed Sabri gave his name as a co-lead singer of the ensemble and the group came to be known as Ghulam Farid Sabri - Maqbool Ahmed Sabri Qawwal & Party.  Later still, the group became known as The Sabri Brothers.  As The Sabri Brothers, they became widely acclaimed for their singing.  

The Sabri Brothers first recording, released in 1958 under the EMI Pakistan labe, was a popular hit called Mera Koi Nahi Hai Tere Siwa.  Their Qawwalis became very popular worldwide.  Their greatest hit Qawwalis are very popular worldwide.  Their greatest hit Qawwalis include Bhar Do Jholi Meri Ya Muhammad, Taidar-e-Haram, O Sharabi Chord De Peena, Khwaja Ki Deewani, and Sar E La Makan Se Talab Hui.  The Sabri Brothers have sung many Qawwalis in Persian like Nami Danam Che Manzil Boodh and Chashm-e-Mast-e-Ajabe.  The Sabri Brothers have also sung a Kalaam -- a speech -- of Imam Ahmed Raza Khan which is in four languages -- Arabic, Persian, Urdu, and Hindi.  The kalaam is Lam Yaati Nazeeruka Fee Nazarin. 

Ghulam Farid was also a poet.  He wrote some famous qawwalis which were sung by him and his brothers, including Aawe Mahi and Auliyao'n Ke Maula Imam Aaye Hai.

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Sheikh, M. A.; Who's Who: Music in Pakistan; Xlibris Corporation, 2012.

"Obituary: Ghulam Farid Sabri"; The Independent, May 19, 1994.

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23 Shawwal, 1432 AH (September 21, 2011 CC) -- Maqbool Ahmed Sabri, a qawwali singer and a prominent member of the Sabri Brothers, a well-known qawwali group in Pakistan in the 1970s, 1980s and the 1990s, died.

Maqbool Ahmed Sabri (b. October 12, 1945 [06 Dhu al-Qi'dah, 1364 AH] Kalyana, Punjab Province, British India [now in Haryana, India] - d. September 21, 2011 [23 Shawwal, 1432 AH], South Africa) was born in Kalyana in eastern Punjab.  Maqbool was initially educated in the Hindustani classical music tradition by his father Ustad Inayat Hussain Sabri and his elder brother Ghulam Farid Sabri.  His family claimed direct descent from Mian Tansen, the legendary musician of the court of Akbar the Great, the Mughal emperor.  Mehboob Baksh Ranji Ali Rang, his paternal grandfather, was a master musician of his time.  Baqar Hussein Khan, his maternal grandfather, was a unique sitarist.  His family belongs to the Sabriyya order of Sufism, hence the surname Sabri.

Maqbool Ahmed Sabri showed musical talent from a young age.  This talent was noticed by his school teacher who later asked Maqbool Ahmed Sabri's father to further instruct him and guide him in the field of music.  In 1955, Maqbool's brother in-law got him employed to sing at a theater in Karachi where he gave his first public performance.  Maqbool received a lot of appreciation from the audience by singing old Hindi film songs.  

Later, Maqbool decided to quit his as some other performers at the theater became jealous of his popularity.  With the help of his father, Maqbool formed a Qawwali group at the age of eleven and named it Bacha Qawwal Party.  The group's first public performance was in year 1956 at an Urs -- death anniversary -- ceremony where Maqbool sang Do Alam Baka Kul Giraftar Daari in the presence of many legendary Qawwals of that time.  Soon afterwards, his elder brother Ghulam Farid Sabri (who was at that time performing as a supporting lead singer with Ustan Kallan Khan's Qawwali group) joined Maqbool upon the insistence of their father.  Ghulam then became the lead singer Bacha Qawwal Party -- which soon became known as Sabri Brothers.

The first recording of the Sabri Brothers, released in 1958 under the EMI Pakistan label, was the Urdu Qawwali, Mera Koi Nahin Hai Teray Siwa.  Their subsequent blockbuster hits included Bhar Do Jholi Meri Ya Muhammad, Tajdar-e-Haram, O Sharabi Chord De Peena, Khwaja Ki Deewani, and Sar E La Makan Se Talab Hui. The Sabri Brothers have sung many Qawwalis in Persian like Nami Danam Che Manzil Boodh and Chashm-e-Mast-e-Ajabe.  The Sabri Brothers have also sung a Kalaam -- a speech -- of Imam Ahmed Raza Khan which is in four languages -- Arabic, Persian, Urdu, and Hindi.  The kalaam is Lam Yaati Nazeeruka Fee Nazarin. 

Maqbool is considered to have been a master of improvisational wordplay, often making references in Urdu and Punjabi, as well as Persian or Arabic, to historical events or to traditional poetry.  He is also considered to be one of the best classical singers.  

Maqbool Ahmed Sabri was also a poet who wrote famous qawwalis which included Koi Mujhse Pooche Mai Kya Chahta Hoo Madine Mei Thodi Jagah Chahta Hoo and Ajmer Ko Jaana Hai.

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Sheikh, M. A.; Who's Who: Music in Pakistan; Xlibris Corporation, 2012.

"Obituary: Maqbool Sabri of Sabri Brothers passes away"; The Express Tribune, September 21, 2011.

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25 Shawwal, 148 AH (December 14, 765 CC) -- Ja'far al-Sadiq, the sixth Imam of Shi'a Islam, was martyred.

Ja'far ibn Muhammad al-Sadiq (b. April 23, 702 CC [17 Rabi al-Awwal, 83 AH], Medina, Hejaz, Umayyad Empire - d. December 14, 765 CC [25 Shawwal, 148 AH], Medina, Abbasid Empire), commonly known as Ja'far al-Sadiq or simply as-Sadiq ("The Truthful"), was sixth Imam of Shi'a Islam and the founder of the Ja'fari school of jurisprudence according to Twelver and Isma'ili Shi'ites.  To Sunnis, he is a major figure in the Hanafi and Maliki schools of Sunni jurisprudence and he was a teacher of the Sunni scholars Abu Hanifah and Malik ibn Anas.  Ja'far al-Sadiq was a transmitter of hadiths and, therefore, was a prominent jurist for Sunnis and a mystic for the Sufis.  Despite his wide-ranging attributions in a number or religious disciplines, no works penned by Ja'far himself remain extant.

Al-Sadiq inherited the position of Imam from his father, Muhammad al-Baqir.  As a Shi'a Imam, al-Sadiq stayed out of the political conflicts that embroiled the region, evading the many requests for support that he received from rebels.  He was the victim of some harassment by the Abbasid caliphs, and was eventually, according to Shi'a Muslims, poisoned at the orders of the Caliph Al-Mansur.  In addition to his connection with Sunni schools of jurisprudence, he was a significant 

figure in the formation of Shi'a doctrine.  

The traditions -- the hadith -- recorded by al-Sadiq are said to be more numerous than all hadiths recorded from all other Shi'a imams combined.  As the founder of Ja'fari jurisprudence, al-Sadiq also elaborated the doctrine of Nass (divinely inspired designation of each Imam by the previous Imam) and Ismah (the infallibility of the imams), as well as that of Taqiyyah. 

The question of succession after al-Sadiq's death was the cause of division among Shi'a who considered his eldest son, Isma'il (who had reportedly died before his father) to be the next Imam, and those who believed his third son Musa al-Kadhim was the Imam.  The first group became known as the Ismailis and the second, larger, group was named Ja'fari, or the Twelvers.

Ja'far al-Sadiq was a descendant of 'Ali ibn Abu Talib and Fatimah bint Muhammad through Husayn ibn 'Ali on the side of his father, Muhammad al-Baqir, and Abu Bakr through Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr on the side of his mother, Umm Farwah bint al-Qasim.  Al-Sadiq was the first of the Shi'a Imams to be descended from both Abu Bakr, the first Rashidun Caliph, and 'Ali ibn Abu Talib, the first Shi'a Imam.  

During the first fourteen years of his life, Ja'far al-Sadiq lived alongside his grandfather Zayn al-Abedin.  It was at this time that he witnessed Zayn al-Abedin's withdrawal from politics.  He also noted the respect that the famous jurists of Medina held toward Zayn al-Abedin in spite of his few followers.  

In his mother's house, al-Sadiq also interacted with his grandfather Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr, who was respected by the people of Medina as a famous traditionalist -- a famous keeper of hadith.  During this period, Umayyad power was at its climax, and the childhood of al-Sadiq coincided with the growing interest of the people of Medina in prophetic science and interpretations of the Qur'an.

Al-Sadiq inherited the position of Imam upon the death of his father, Muhammad al-Baqir in 732 CC.  He held the Imamate for 28 years, longer than any other Shi'a Imam.  The Imamate of Ja'far al-Sadiq was a crucial period in Islamic history for both political and doctrinal reasons.  Prior to al-Sadiq, the majority of Shi'ites had preferred the revolutionary politics of Zaid (his uncle) to the mystical quietism of his father and grandfather.  Zaid had claimed that the position of an Imam was conditional on his appearing publicly to claim his right to be Imam.  Al-Sadiq, on the other hand, enunciated what became the doctrine of Imamate which says the Imamate is not a matter of human choice or self-assertion, but rather that each Imam possesses a unique 'ilm (knowledge) which qualifies him for the position.  This knowledge was deemed to have been passed down from the Prophet Muhammad through the line of 'Ali ibn Abi Talib's immediate descendants.  The doctrine of Nass -- the doctrine of divinely inspired designation of each Imam by the previous Imam -- was completed by al-Sadiq.  Importantly, while asserting his inherent right to be Imam, al-Sadiq would not lay claim to the Caliphate during his lifetime.

Al-Sadiq's imamate extended over the latter half of the Umayyad Caliphate, which was marked by many revolts (mostly by Shi'ite movements), and eventually the violent overthrow of the Umayyad Caliphate by the Abbasids, descendants of Muhammad's uncle al-'Abbas.  Al-Sadiq maintained his father's policy of quietism, and played no part in the numerous rebellions.  

Al-Sadiq stayed out of the uprising of Zaydis who gathered around his uncle Zayd, who had supported the Mu'tazilites and the traditionalists of Medina and Kufa.  Al-Sadiq also did not support the rebellion led by his cousin, Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyyah, who was inspired by Kaysanites.  Al-Sadiq also played no part in the Abbasid rebellion against the Umayyads.  His response to a message requesting help from Abu Muslim, the Khorasani leader of an uprising against the Umayyads, became famous.  Al-Sadiq asked for a lamp and burned Abu Muslim's letter, saying to the envoy who brought it, "Tell your master what you have seen."  

In burning Abu Muslim's letter, Al-Sadiq also said, "This man is not one of my men, this time is not mine."  Al-Sadiq also evaded requests for assistance from other claimants to the Caliphate without advancing his own claims, even though Al-Sadiq, as the designated Imam, was the true leader of the Umma.  Al-Sadiq's conscious position of neutrality is likely why he was tolerated by the Umayyad court for so long.  His position of neutrality also gave rise to the legal precedent of Taqiyyah -- the practice emphasized in Shi'a Islam whereby adherents are permitted to conceal their religion when under threat of persecution or compulsion. 

The end of the Umayyad dynasty and beginning of the Abbasid was a period during which central authority was weak, allowing al-Sadiq to teach freely in a school which trained about four thousand students.  A school of this size was unusual for religious teachers at this time.  Among his students were Abu Hanifah and Malik ibn Anas, founders of two major Sunni schools of law, the Hanafiyah and the Malikiyah.

Wasila ibn Ala, found of the Mu'tazila school, was also among al-Sadiq's pupils.  

After the Abbasid revolution had overthrown the Umayyad caliphate, the Abbasids turned against Shi'ite groups who had previously been allies against the Umayyads.  The new Abbasid rulers, who had risen to power on the basis of their descent from Muhammad's uncle al-'Abbas, were suspicious of al-Sadiq, because Shi'ites had always believed that leadership of the Ummah was a position issued by divine order and, therefore, was a position which was given to each Imam by the previous Imam. 

In addition, al-Sadiq had a large following, both among scholars and among those who believed him to be the Imam.  During the reign of al-Mansur as Caliph, al-Sadiq was summoned to Baghdad, along with some other prominent men from Medina.  They were summoned to Baghdad so that the Caliph (al-Mansur) could keep a close watch on them.  Al-Sadiq, however, asked the Caliph to excuse him from going to Baghdad by reciting a hadith which said that "the man who goes away to make a living will achieve his purpose, but he who sticks to his family will prolong his life."  Al-Mansur accepted Al-Sadiq's request.

However, after the defeat and death of his cousin, Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyyah in 762, al-Sadiq thought it advisable to obey al-Mansur's summons.  But, after a short stay in Baghdad, al-Sadiq was able to convince the Caliph that he was not a threat and, subsequently, al-Sadiq was allowed to return to Medina.

Toward the end of his life, al-Sadiq was subject to some harassment by the Abbasid caliphs.  The governor of Medina was instructed by the Caliph to burn down al-Sadiq's house.  Al-Sadiq escaped from the burning of his house unharmed.

To cut his ties with his followers, al-Sadiq was also watched closely and occasionally imprisoned.  Through these trials, al-Sadiq appears to have continued his scholarship and remained an influential teacher in his native Medina and beyond.

Al-Sadiq married Fatimah al- Hasan, a descendant of his ancestor al-Hasan ibn 'Ali, with whom he had two sons, Isma'il ibn Ja'far (the sixth Isma'ili Imam) and Abdullah al-Aftah.  Following his wife's death, al-Sadiq purchased a Berber or Andalusian slave named Hamidah Khatun.  He subsequently freed her, trained her as an Islamic scholar, and then married her.  Hamidah Khatun bore al-Sadiq two more sons: Musa al-Kadhim (the seventh Twelver Imam) and Muhammad al-Dibaj.  Hamidah Khatun was revered by the Shi'ites, especially by women, for her wisdom.  Because of her wisdom, Hamidah Khatun came to be known as Hamidah the Pure.  

Al-Sadiq was arrested several times by the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs, Hisham, as-Saffah, and al-Mansur.  He was particularly seen as a threat by the newly minted Abbasids who felt challenged by his strong claim to the title of caliph.  When al-Sadiq died in 765 CC (148 AH) many Shi'a suspected that he had been poisoned at the behest of al-Mansur.

Al-Sadiq was buried in Medina, in the famous Jannatul Baqee' cemetery.  His tomb became a place of pilgrimage until 1926.  In 1926, the Wahhabis under the leadership of Ibn Saud, the founding King of Saudi Arabia, conquered Medina for the second time, and razed al-Sadiq's tomb, along with the tombs of all other prominent Islamic shrines, with the exception of the tomb of the Prophet Muhammad. 

Al-Sadiq's death led to uncertainty about the succession of the Imamate.  Upon hearing the news of al-Sadiq's death, al-Mansur wanted to put an end to the Imamate.  Al-Mansur wrote to the governor of Medina, commanding him to read al-Sadiq's testament, and to behead the person named in it as the future Imam.  However, the governor found that al-Sadiq had chosen four people rather than one: al-Mansur himself, the governor, the Imam's oldest son Abdullah al-Attah, and Musa al-Kadhim, al-Sadiq's younger son.

The Shi'a had begun to split during the lifetime of al-Sadiq when his eldest son Isma'il ibn Ja'far predeceased him.  After the death of al-Sadiq, his following afractured further, with the larger group who came to be known as the Twelvers, following his younger son Musa al-Kadhim.  Another group believed instead that Isma'il had been designated as the next Imam, and that since Isma'il had predeceased his father, the Imamate had passed to Isma'il's son Muhammad ibn Isma'il and his descendants.  This latter group became known as the Isma'ilis.  Some Isma'ilis believe that Isma'il had not actually died, but would reappear as the Mahdi -- the rejuvenator of Islam in the Shi'a doctrine.  Still other groups accepted either Abdullah al-Aftah or Muhammad ibn Ja'far al-Sadiq (al-Dibaj), both sons of Ja'far al-Sadiq.  A final group believed that al-Sadiq had been the last Imam, and that the lineage had not continued. 

After the death of Musa al-Kadhim, the majority of Musa's recognized Musa's son, 'Ali al-Ridha as the eighth Imam, while others believed that al-Kadhim had been the last Imam.  This latter group became known as the Waqifiyah.  No major divisions occurred in Shi'ism from the eighth Imam to the twelfth Imam, whom the majority of the Shi'a -- the Twelvers -- consider to have be Muhammad al-Mahdi.  Among the sects which separated from the majority, only Zaidiyyah and Isma'ili sects continue to exist today.

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Ja'far al-Sadiq's religious views

Al-Sadiq religious views are recorded as authority in the writing of a number of contradictory positions.  The use of his name as an authority within the Sufi, scientific, Sunni legal, Isma'ili and extremist writings shows al-Sadiq's importance as a figure within the development of early Muslim thought.  According to Ya'qubi, it was customary for anyone who wanted to relate a tradition from al-Sadiq to say "the Learned One informed us".  Malik ibn Anas, when quoting anything from al-Sadiq would say "The Thiqa (the truthful) Ja'far ibn Muhammad himself told me that ..."  The same attribution is reported by Abu Hanifa.

The works attributed to al-Sadiq no longer exist, but the attributions in themselves establish al-Sadiq as a master of learning generally, and the Islamic sciences in particular.  Though most groups wished to recruit al-Sadiq's legacy for their own cause, the most extensive source for his teachings is to be found within the Imami Shi'a tradition.  For Twelver Shi'as Ja'far al-Sadiq and his father were responsible for having more hadiths recorded than all the other Shi'a Imams combined.  Shi'a thought starting with Sayyid Haydar Amuli, and leading to Safavid philosophers like Mir Damad, Mulla Sadra and Qazi Sa'ida Qumi continuing to the present day is based on Shi'a imams' tradition especially the tradition of al-Sadiq.  According to Sa'id Akhtar Rizvi, al-Sadiq also preached against slavery. 

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Ja'fari jurisprudence

Shi'a jurisprudence became known as Ja'fari jurisprudence as a legacy of Ja'far al-Sadiq, whose legal dicta were the most important source of Shi'a law.  Like Sunni law, Ja'fari jurisprudence is based on the Qu'ran and hadith as well as on consensus (ijma).  Unlike the Sunnis, Shi'as give more weight to reasoning ('Aql), while Sunnis only allow for a kind of analogical reasoning (Qiyas).  

Al-Sadiq is often presented as one who denounced the personal opinion (Ra'y) and analogical reasoning (qias) of his contemporaries arguing that God's law is occasional and unpredictable, and that the servants' duty is not to embark on reasoning in order to discover the law, but to submit to the inscrutable will of God as revealed by the Imam.  In his book Maqbula, Omar ibn Hanzala (who was a disciple of al-Sadiq) asks the Imam how legal disputes within the community should be solved, and whether one should take such cases to the ruler and his judges.  Ja'far al-Sadiq replied in the negative saying that those who take their disputes to the rulers, and their judges get only soht (unlawful decisions).  Instead al-Sadiq recommends an unofficial system of justice for the community, and that the disputants should turn to "those who relate our hadiths", i.e., the imams.  

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Ja'far al-Sadiq's view of theology

Ja'far al-Sadiq's view on theology is transmitted through Mufazzel who recorded his own questions and al-Sadiq's answers in a book known as Ketab al-Tawhid in which al-Sadiq gives proof as to the unity of God.  This book is considered identical to the Kitab al-ehilaja which is a reply to Mufazzel's request from al-Sadiq for a refutation of those who deny God.  Hisham ibn Hakam (d. 179 AH/796 CC) is another famous student of al-Sadiq who proposed a number of doctrines that later became orthodox Shi'a theology, including the rational necessity of the divinely guided Imam in every age to teach and lead God's community. 

Al-Sadiq is attributed with the statement: "Whoever claims that God has ordered evil, has lied about God.  Whoever claims that both good and evil are attributed to him, has lied about God".  This view which is in accordance with that of Mu'tazilite doctrine seems to absolve God from responsibility for evil in the world.

Al-Sadiq said that God does not "order created beings to do something without God's permission".  Al-Sadiq expressed a moderate view between compulsion (Jabr), and giving the choice to man (Talviz), stating that God decreed some things absolutely, but left some others to human agency.  This assertion was widely adopted afterwards and was called "al-amr bayn al-amrayn" which meant "neither predestination nor delegation but a position between the two."  Al-Sadiq's view, therefore, is recorded as supporting either position as it is reported in an exchange between him and an unknown interlocutor.  The interlocutor asks if God forces his servants to do evil or whether he has delegated power to them.  Al-Sadiq's answered negatively to both questions.  When asked "What then?" he replied, "The blessings of your Lord are between these two."

It is narrated in hadith that Ja'far al-Sadiq has said "We are the people well-grounded in knowledge and we are the ones who know how to interpret it."

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Ja'far al-Sadiq in Tafsir (Quranic exegesis)

The works attributed to Ja'far al-Sadiq in Tafsir (Quranic exegesis) are mostly described as the Sufi-mystical works such as Tafsir al-Qur'an and Manafe' sowar al-Qur'an.  The attribution of these works to al-Sadiq, however, is not certain.  In his books Haqa'eq al-tafsir and Ziadat Haqa'eq al-tafsir, 'Abd al-Rahman Solami cites al-Sadiq as one of his major sources of knowledge concerning the meaning of Quranic verses.

Kitab al-Jafr, an early mystical commentary on the Qur'an (Tafsir), is also attibuted to al-Sadiq.  According to Ibn Khaldun, Kitab al-Jafr was originally written on the skin of a young bull, allowing the Imam to reveal the hidden meaning of the Qur'an.  Al-Sadiq is said to have proposed a four-fold model of Qur'an interpretation.  He said that "The Book of God comprises four things: the statement set down, the implied purport, the hidden meanings, relating to the supra-sensible world, and the exalted spiritual doctrines." He said that the plain meanings were for the common people; the hidden meanings for the elite; the implied meanings for the "friends of god;" and the "exalted spiritual doctrines" were the "province of the prophets."  He stated that hadith, or traditional sayings of the Prophet, should be rejected if they contradicted the Qur'an.

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Doctrine of Taqiyyah

Al-Sadiq adopted Taqiyyah as a defensive tool against the violence and threats that were directed against him and the Shi'as.  Taqiyyah was a form of religious dissimulation, or a legal dispensation whereby a believing individual can deny their faith while they are in fear or at risk of significant persecution.  In other words, Taqiyyah says that it is acceptable to hide one's true opinions if by revealing them, one puts oneself or others in danger.  The doctrine was developed by al-Sadiq, and served to protect the Shi'as when al-Mansur, the Abbasid caliph, conducted a brutal and oppressive campaign against Alids and their supporters. 

In the early sources, Taqiyyah means "the keeping or safeguarding of the secrets of the Imams' teaching."  "Divergence of traditions" is, therefore, sometimes justified by Shi'a Imams as a result of the need for using Taqiyyah. "He who is certain that we (the imams) proclaim only the truth (al-Haqq), may he be satisfied with our teaching," asserts al-Sadiq, "and if he hears us say something contradictory to what he heard earlier, he should know that we are acting only in his own interest."  Practicing Taqiyya also had an esoteric significance for those who believed that their teachings should not be comprehensible to ordinary ulama, and so hid their more profound teachings.  Thus Ja'far either distanced himself or did not get involved with the rebellions of his uncle Zayd and cousin Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya against the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties, respectively.

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Influence on Sunni Islam

Ja'far al-Sadiq was a companion or teacher of Sunni Imam Abu Hanifah and Malik ibn Anas, who in turn was a teacher of Sunni Imam Ash-Shafi'i, who in turn was a teacher of Sunni Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal.  Also, Ja'far al-Sadiq's daughter-in-law, Sayyidah Nafisah, was a teacher of Ash-Shafi'i.  Thus, all of the four great imams of Sunni Fiqh -- Sunni jurisprudence -- are connected to Ja'far, whether directly or indirectly.  

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Influence on Sufism

Ja'far al-Sadiq holds a special prominence among Sufi orders due to his claimed connections to some of Sufism's earliest theologians.  He is elevated as an individual of great spiritual knowledge ('ilm) in many early works of Sufi literature, such as those by Abu Bakr Kalabadi (d. 380 AH/990 CC) or later in the writings of Sufi poet Abu Hamid ibn Abu Bakr Ibrahim Attar (d. 618 AH/1221 CC).  Sufi teachers often traced the source of their knowledge back to the teaching of al-Sadiq and that the perceived content of these teaching remain relevant to Sufi practice today.

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Quotations Attributed to Ja'far al-Sadiq

"The most perfect of men in intellect is the best of them in ethics."

"Charity is the zakat (alms) of blessings, intercession is the zakat of dignity, illnesses are the zakat of bodies, forgiveness is the zakat of victory, and the thing whose zakat is paid is safe from taking (by Allah)."

"He who answers all that he is asked, surely is mad."

"Whoever fears God, God makes all things fear him; and whoever does not fear God, God makes him fear all things."

"Allah Almighty has said: "People are dear to me like family.  Therefore, the best of them is the one who is nicer to others and does his best to resolve their needs."

 

"One of the deeds Allah Almighty appreciates the most is making his pious servants happy.  This can be done through fulfilling their hunger, sweeping away their sorrows, or paying of their debts."

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Ja'far was summoned to Baghdad on several occasions by the Abbasid ruler Abu Ja'far al-Mansur, who accused him of taking part in political

intrigues and fanning the flames of civil unrest and social disturbance.  A tall, slim and always neatly dressed Ja'far attended the charismatic Caliph's court on more than one occasion and refuted the charges levelled against him with great wit and eloquence.  When al-Mansur called him to his Caliphal court in Baghdad for the very last time, everyone at the court expected the Caliph to lose his patience and treat Ja'far harshly, but as soon as the great scholar walked into the packed Caliphal court, al-Mansur rose to his feet, paid his respects to him and invited Ja'far to sit next to him.  The Caliph's attitude and behaviour towards Ja'far surprised everyone at the Caliphal court.  Suddenly, out of the blue, there appeared a fly which began to distract the Caliph while he was busy talking to Ja'far.  Soon the Caliph lost his patience and asked the learned scholar if he could explain why God had created flies.  A sharp, witty, but equally fearless, Ja'far replied that God had created flies in order to humble the pride of tyrannical and despotic rulers.  Everyone inside the court was taken aback by his answer, except al-Mansur; he understood the full meaning and import of Ja'far's answer and treated the great scholar with courtesy and respect during his stay in Baghdad.

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Adamec, Ludwig W.; The A to Z of Islam; Scarecrow Press, 2002.

Armstrong, Karen; Islam, A Short History; Modern Library, 2002.

Khan, Muhammad Mojlum; The Muslim 100: The Lives, Thoughts and Achievements of the Most Influential Muslims in History; Kube Publishing Ltd., 2008.

Moezzi, Mohammad Ali Amir; The Divine Guide in Early Shi'ism: The Sources of Esotericism in Islam; State University of New York Press, 1994.

Momen, Moojan; An Introduction to Shi'i Islam; Yale University Press, 1985.

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